Two People of Wal-Mart an Ethnography Experiment - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1607 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Culture Essay Level High school Tags: Ethnographic Essay Did you like this example? In anthropology, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. (ONeil, 2006). In the United States, this culture could be defined as a massively multi-ethnic, materialistic consortium of merging cultures from around the world. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Two People of Wal-Mart an Ethnography Experiment" essay for you Create order Known as the melting pot the world over, America has the distinction of being a nation built from emigration. While smaller subcultures exist and are referred to as the American Way, they are not mutually exclusive, nor are they sole proprietors of that title. So, when challenged to conduct an ethnography and desiring to focus on Americans, the search began to find a site that offers the greatest convergence of these various subcultures. A possible solution: Wal-Mart. Everyone shops at Wal-Mart. This may seem like a gross generalization, but, an analytical study of register activity conducted by the NPD Group, a global analytics and survey firm, showed that a staggering 95 percent (let that sink in) of Americans bought something from Wal-Mart in 2016 (Where Consumers Spent in 2016, 2017). Even a brief period of observation in this institution of American commercialism must provide a terrific opportunity to see a cross-section of our vibrant multi-cultural society. Through the allotted 25 minutes, four anthropological concepts emerged. First, a pattern of gender norms was identified. This is closely related to the second concept, the family dynamic. Third was socialization. Due to the density of people in a relatively confined area, cultural norms were both demonstrated and could observed being passed to the next generation. And finally, a definitive material culture was assessed by observing the types of goods being bought. Being limited in observation time and the scope of this ethnography, the conclusions drawn are likewise incomplete. The Setting With more than 5,000 stores in the U.S. alone (Wal-Mart Locations Around the World United States, 2018) the layout of both the store and its supporting parking lot are familiar to most of us95% of us apparently! For this observation, the store is fed from a large rectangular parking lot with row upon row of horizontally oriented parking stalls providing space for just over 500 cars. It being just after noon on a Saturday, the store is doing a brisk business and throughout the parking lot, the activity is frenetic. Cars and SUVs zip up and down the aisles hunting for that premium parking spot close to the entrances. It is here we see our first hints of deviance, speeding and cutting across parking stalls were both very commonalmost to the point of becoming the social norm. The vehicles run the gamut of cost from six-figure German imports to rickety dirt bikes and everything in between. Business is so good at this store as to warrant the permanent presence of a police cruiser. Heading through the triple-wide automatic sliding doors, the ubiquitous paid Greeter says a perfunctory hello to passers-by that only vaguely acknowledge him. The store itself is immense. Hundreds of feet in both length and width, it is lit by wall to wall soft fluorescent lighting that only just pales next to the midday sun that was baking the parking lot outside. The noise is a muted rumble of dozens of people, shopping cart wheels on hard floors, the shuffle of feet and, above it all, the higher-pitched and unmoderated voices of excited children exclaiming over this or that bauble. The firmly conditioned air is a steadfast 74 degrees based on my watch mounted thermometer. As shoppers tromp up and down the aisles they are assailed by a myriad of smells: coffee, plastic, rayon fabric, ozone, body odor, and various perfumes and colognes. Demographics. While the purpose of this ethnography is not to explore the demographics of Newport Country, a quick review of that data will help to identify if the observed population is a fair representation of the feeder community. According to the 2017 U.S. Census Bureau, Newport Countys population of roughly 80,000 is predominantly white (86.2%) with Hispanics (5.33%) and black people (2.96%) making up the bulk of the minority. Population by sex is almost completely even at 50.4% female. The median age is 44.2 years old (U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts, 2018). With a market penetration of 95%, stores like this Wal-Mart offer a terrific opportunity to perform an ethnographic study over a random sampling of the population. Gender Norms. Throughout the observation period a couple of gender trends became evident. First, was the distribution of genders in the various departments of the store. Women were observed in disproportionate numbers shopping in childrens clothing, housewares, and the infant care departments when compared to men by a ratio of three to one. Most of the men were found shopping in typically masculine departments like sporting goods, automotive and electronics, outnumbering women two to one. Overall, more women were in the store than men with 57 of 78 adult shoppers being women. Another disparity was the number of each group of adults that was accompanied by children. Women were again the stronger showing. Of 33 distinct sets of children, 21 were accompanied solely by an adult female, six were accompanied solely by an adult male, and the remaining six were accompanied by both an adult male and an adult female. From these observations, it may be assumed that American women are predominantly focused on the traditionally feminine roles when shopping for household goods whereas men are more likely to shop for prototypically masculine household items in support of kinetic (sports and outdoor diversions) and technical activities. A second conclusion might be that women are more likely to be charged with child care, even outside of the home based on the higher incidence of female guardianship observed. Family dynamic. Some insight into family dynamics was also gained through this ethnography. Most notably was the number of family units (for the purposes of this observation, any group consisting of at least one adult leading at least one child or one geriatric) when compared to single adult shoppers. Family units represented 68 percent of all shoppers. This would follow reason since the store boasts departments for every age from infant to geriatric. While shopping alone would certainly be more expeditious and less contentious, it seemed that shopping as a family was more important. Not only were children more often led by women, but multi-generational groups also appeared to center around a woman more often than they did a man. In fact, even when an adult male was present, most of the conversation and, ultimately the decisions on what product to select, was conducted between the woman and her elders. This would imply a matriarchal dynamic in the context of shopping here. Interestingly, this held true even over a couple interactions that occurred in the automotive departments. Another facet of this dynamic centered around the shopping cart. In the majority of cases, the adult that was pushing the shopping cart was the ego of the group. The path around the store, the pace of that transit and quite often the decision on what did or did not go in were all decided by the pusher of the cart. Females were predominantly in this position, edging out the men in family groups 23 to 14. Socializing and children Socializing is the act of passing on or learning a cultures rules and values. On several occasions, parents were seen taking the opportunity of shopping to socialize their children. Teaching them to modulate their voices, keep their hands to themselves and exercise restraint were the predominant themes of this instruction. From this, it might be concluded that American culture is a conservative one where public behavior is concerned! These acts of socialization were reinforced even by apparent total strangers through either verbal or non-verbal means. Some adults would give looks or sighs at social deviance and some would straight up comment to either the offender or the offenders apparent guardian, offering encouragement or criticism. Neither form of input seemed to be particularly welcome, but the parents would invariably reinvigorate their instruction to the children. Beyond this, there was very little real interaction between groups or family units. Most of the time, these parties were more likely to avoid eye contact, move to avoid close proximity to strangers, and were more often than not self-centered. This is not to say that overt rudeness was displayed at any point, more a general indifference. These are not the norms of community and shared experience we normally associate with American living. American Consumerism Consumerism is a primary facet of American life and that was observed at the registers. However, without discussing each purchase with the shoppers themselves, it is difficult to say if the goods bought were selected for materialistic reasons. Most of the items in these carts were not what would normally be considered essentials. Sure, there were food stuffs and basic household goods, but the vast majority of items purchased were for entertainment, quality of life, and luxury items. Based on a very limited observation window I would draw the following conclusions. American culture, at least in the context of shopping is slightly matriarchal, with strong familial ties and a healthy respect for elders. (Traditionally) Feminine roles are predominantly performed by women and masculine roles by men. Public behavior tends towards the conservative at least until you get to the parking lot! Wal-Mart does provide a healthy cross-section of the local community, but I do not believe it is the best representation of American culture. People dont go to Wal-Mart to socialize or interact and so it is unlikely to see any real examples of culture beyond the ravenous consumerism that is our societies bad side. From my personal experience in less urbanized areas, I would paint a much warmer and communal picture of our culture than what I saw at this Wal-Mart.

Expectancy Violations Theory Of Expectancy - 1301 Words

Expectancy Violations Theory Every day we make predictions. Its subconscious, but we do. Imagine meeting someone for the first time and you predicted shaking the person’s hand. In fact, you may have even extended your hand out, if the person you were meeting took the hand and pulled it into a hug, you have just experienced a violation of what you expected to happen. This is called expectancy violations theory. The expectancy violations theory was developed by Judee Burgoon. The theory is an in-depth look into how people respond to an offense to what they perceive as a social norm. Individuals make predictions based on their past interactions and have compiled their own expectations. Expectancy violations include personal space. Personal space is the distance that a person prefers to be from others. Personal space is subjective to every individual’s preference and can be influenced by their cultural background. Edward Hall who coined the term, proxemics, said Americans have four proxemics zones. The first being the intimate distance about zero to eighteen inches, the next was called personal distance which was eighteen inches to four feet, then third proxemics zone was named social distance which was from four feet to 12 feet, and finally the last zone was public distance which was twelve feet to 15 feet. Hall taught that we shouldn’t be incentive to other special cultures and that it was important to adjust our non-verbal behavior to accommodate others (Griffin et al.,Show MoreRelatedExpectancy Violation Theory Of Expectancy1373 Words   |  6 PagesBurgoon originally developed the Expectancy Violation Theory in 1978; it began as a simple theory a bout personal space. Today, it analyzes how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms or expectations. Violations of expectations can completely alter a relationship for better and even for worse. Understanding the past research done on expectancy violation theory can help people prepare for various social situations and understand past violations as well. This literature reviewRead MoreExpectancy Violation Theory1588 Words   |  7 PagesExpectancy Violation Theory Introduction â€Å"Expectancy violations exert significance on people’s interaction patterns, on their impressions of one another, and on the outcomes of their interactions† (Burgoon 1993:40). In other words, Judee Burgoon, founder of the expectancy violation theory, concluded from various experiments that people evaluate communication with others in a negative or positive regard, based on their expectation of the interaction and their opinion of the communicator. WhenRead MoreThe Theory Of The Expectancy Violation Theory1668 Words   |  7 Pagespre-existing and external factors. Burgoon’s Expectancy Violations Theory analyses people’s reactions to unanticipated violations of social norms or expectations. This theory discusses many of the different factors that play a role when individuals form their expectancies such as context, relationship, communicator characteristics, and nonverbal communication. This paper analyses the pros and cons of the Expectancy Violation Theory. It argues why this theory satisfies enough of Griffin s six standardsRead MoreExpectancy Violation Theory And Its Significance1650 Words   |  7 Pagesreviews expectancy violation theory and its significance in understanding interpersonal communication. The theory highlights the unexpected behavior of human being while interacting (Dainton, 2011). This theory is based on the reduction uncertainty where ambiguity on behaviors of others is reduced through interaction. Expectancy violations theory offers some prospect to compare the personality of traditional empiricism with humanism. The theory was developed from the Nonverbal expectancy violation modelRead MoreThe Expectancy Violations Theory And Human Norms1299 Words   |  6 Pagesassignment, Professor Striley, after explaining the expectancy violations theory, challenged her students to apply its concepts to violate a stranger’s expectations in publ ic and record the subsequent response. Through this activity, I learned firsthand that low communicator reward valence potential could cause a seemingly ambiguous violation to seem negative. In this paper, I will first explain the expectancy violations theory and describe the expectancy my group violated for the assignment. Next, IRead MoreChristian Perspective On Expectancy Violations Theory3137 Words   |  13 PagesCarter Almquist Communication Theory Professor McCormick December 2, 2014 Christian Perspective on Expectancy Violations Theory In this paper there will be a critical analysis of the Expectancy Violations Theory and views points of a Christian on that theory. Expectancy Violations Theory is best defined as a way to explain how someone reacts to unexpected behavior of their friends and peers and the many meanings that people bring to the violation of their personal space. According to communicationtheoryRead MoreExpectancy Violation Theory (Paper Rough Draft)1192 Words   |  5 PagesExpectancy Violation Theory (Paper Rough Draft) â€Æ' Expectancy Violation Theory, or more commonly referred to as EVT, is the study of attempting to explain one’s reactions to unexpected behavior of their peers, and the various meanings that people attribute to the violation, or infringement, of their personal space. Judee Burgoon defines personal space as the invisible, variable volume of space surrounding an individual that defines that individual’s preferred distance from others. I will explainRead MoreThe Expectancy Violations Theory Originated By Judee Burgoon1917 Words   |  8 PagesThe Expectancy Violations Theory originated by Judee Burgoon explains a person’s response to unpredicted actions by their peers, and the numerous meanings that individuals attribute to the abuse or violation of their personal space. Burgoon defined personal space as the â€Å"invisible, variable volume of space surrounding an individual that defines that individual’s preferred distance from others† (Griffin, p. 85 ). Expectancy is what people predict (or expect) will occur, instead of what they wish. Read MoreAnalysis Of Judee Burgoon s Expectancy Violations Theory943 Words   |  4 PagesJudee Burgoon’s expectancy violations theory is about how people deal with violations of personal space, behaviors, and communication. Burgoon first started with Edward Hall’s theory about proxemics. Proxemics is someone’s personal space. She then modified her theory to include behavior and communication violations. The three main parts of Burgoon’s theory are expectancies, violation valence, and communicator reward valence. Expectancies are what some expects to happen. There are three factorsRead MoreExpectancy Violation Theory1573 Words   |  7 PagesExpectancy Violation Theory Introduction â€Å"Expectancy violations exert significance on people’s interaction patterns, on their impressions of one another, and on the outcomes of their interactions† (Burgoon 1993:40). In other words, Judee Burgoon, founder of the expectancy violation theory, concluded from various experiments that people evaluate communication with others in a negative or positive regard, based on their expectation of the interaction and their opinion of the communicator. When people

Leading and Managing Organizational for Woolworths- MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theLeading and Managing Organizational Changefor Woolworths. Answer: Introduction The main purpose of this assignment is giving personal reflection and review of change management. The essay gives my self-evaluation of my experience gained during my internship program at Woolworths company (Humayun, 2016). I found that leading and managing organizational change is a critical field that helps personnel understand the importance of change within an organization and the approaches management can take to ensure its success. What Happened My attachment was full of great transition as a learner of leadership and management concepts and this greatly influenced my professional and personal life perspective. The work environment at Woolworths was very conducive and friendly, and this made me enjoy all my duties and responsibilities as instructed by the senior management. My interaction with a diverse workforce, both permanent and casual brought a significant impact to my professional aspirations. My attachment at Woolworths helped me in every leadership and management aspect. The management employed trait theory of management when implementing change by considering the skills, capabilities, and knowledge of every intern before doing interdepartmental transfers. I understand the practicability and applicability of change principles, change implementation methods, the challenges faced during change management, and the strategies of controlling change challenges (Benn, Dunphy, Griffiths, 2014). This experience helped me develop my self-evaluation analysis abilities, and this contributed to my success in the professional life. During the four-month internship program at Woolworths, many things happened. We were offered the chance to work with multicultural and diverse members of the team. Everyone enjoyed the principles used by the management in leading the group activities. The company employed change management agents who supervised our group activities in the sale of retail stocks (Wagner Hollenbeck, 2014). The emphasis on excellent communication skills was key. I learned that communication plays a significant role in change management by eliminating all possibilities of conflict. This opportunity to work with diverse people enhanced my abilities and acknowledgment of the impact of group members in the group. The contingency theory approach was highly recognized since no individual skill was valued singly. Also, the company organized for our conferences and workshop programs where we learned various skills of leadership and management change within an organization. These meetings gave us an opportunity to benchmark with interns from other companies such as Wesfarmers, Target, and others (Clegg, Kornberger, Pitsis, 2015). I gained a lot from these events for I was able to exchange views on what our company does with my colleagues from other businesses. Again, I learned how change management impacts positively to interns creativeness and innovation of new ideas for the enterprise. I learned the importance of theory X and theory Y in leadership by realizing that change management is influenced by managers believes and trust about a workers attitudes. As a result, our team managers had to convince Woolworths management that as interns we need some little compensation for motivation and commitment to the firm's retail processes. Events Interpretation Attending conferences, seminars, and workshops were imperative to my professionalism as an aspiring project manager. I learned reasonable content relevant to my profession for I had an opportunity to interact with different industry experts and colleagues from other firms. I found out that every team member's idea, opinion, and contribution to organizational processes is significant for proper decision making. I learned a lot about leading and managing organizational change and the best strategies adopted by project managers. Project managers first understand the skills, abilities, and passion of employees before bringing in changes. Again, I learned that different organizations employ different management theories, concepts, and philosophies when implementing change processes in their operations. I gained a lot from the ideas and thoughts shared by various experts as well as my fellow interns on how to learn, network, and create content that appeals and conforms to the organizational objectives. Again, Woolworths ability to recruit interns from diverse cultures, origins, beliefs, and races was very helpful to me. I learned that most organizations value cultural diversity and that diversity in work means professionalism. I noted that diversity in work is an essential change management success. Workplace diversity benefits both the interns, employees and the management of a company. I realized that diversity is an essential tool to conflict resolution since each trainee, employee, or the management itself learns to acknowledge other's differences and their similarities hence leading to shared goals achievement. Also, I discovered that workplace diversity creates mutual respect among the interns/employees whether as a group or company. The trait theory plays a critical role in workplace diversity since every employee has his or her strengths and weaknesses and need to get tolerated. Further, leading and managing organizational change in a diverse manner improves the business reputation to the public and hence making it easy to implement change management. Lastly, I have learned from my experience that business reputation flourishes only when a company exercises workplace diversity especially in the recruitment of employees. Effectiveness and Usefulness of the Experience My internship program was very efficient and useful to my knowledge as an aspiring project manager. Again, the experience I gained at Woolworths is beneficial to my personal life as well. First and foremost, the experience developed my self-analysis capabilities of how I can establish and implement plans in my personal and professional life so as to implement the right changes when I become a manager in future. The chance granted to me by the company to benchmark with other interns in workshops and conferences helped me enhance the abilities to interact and recognize other peoples ideas and consider them as equally important to decision making in a firm when it comes to leading and managing organizational change (DuBrin, 2013). It was also useful to me to learn and acknowledge the importance of work distribution among other group members and this has prepared me psychologically to work with all firm employees in the event when I become a manager. I realized that work distribution and togetherness reduces workload in a given department. Another usefulness of the experiences I gained from the internship program is the ability to solve group conflicts and first understand the source of the problem before intervening. In leadership and organizational change management, there is need for peace and harmony in the work group. I also benefited from being tasked with leadership responsibilities and increased responsibilities where the management made me the team leader. I enjoyed the virtue of leading and managing work team, and this provided me with a great edge to be a leader. Further, the experiences I gained at Woolworths made me upgrade my curriculum vitae and enhance my application forms and interviews. Professionally, I learned how to brand myself different from other people and make myself more presentable in employment opportunities. Personally, I learned the importance of timekeeping since the company was very strict on the reporting time as well as project timeframes. Plan of How I will Use this Information As an aspiring project manager, this means I am a management student. The information and experiences I gained from the four-month internship at Woolworths will serve me in my course, program, future, and personal life generally in various ways. The central importance of internship and attachment program for students is assisting their professional and personal lives in future. In future, I aspire to be a successful project manager when it comes to change management. From the experiences I have learned in my internship, I would value workplace diversity in the workplace given its numerous benefits to organizational success. As a manager, I will assess trait theory when assigning duties and responsibilities to the workers. I have understood that different people are talented, skilled, and expertise differently and this knowledge would be my reference to when implementing change management in a firm (Hayes, 2014). I look forward to recruiting employees from different cultural diversity, gender, and professionalism. This is because I have learned that leadership and management change requires different skills in the firms and this is only achievable by recruitment of diverse workforce. I look forward to being a successful manager and sponsoring professional development of my employees as well as interns. Being an optimist, I believe on my mandate as a company director, I will fund intern workshop programs for them to benchmark with interns from other company. Further, I will ensure that the ideas the interns learn and gain from the conferences are integrated into the current organizational strategies and measure the value of their input to organizational success (Peterson Dover, 2014). From my experience, I was motivated when the change manager collected our workshop reports and put into consideration our ideas when implementing changes within the organization. This hence will be subject to my leadership as a motivating tool to the interns to make them feel valued and treasured within the workplace. During my internship program at Woolworths, we were not compensated, the program was purely voluntary. This to some extend demotivated our efforts, commitment, and dedicated to serving the retail supermarket optimally. I was surprised during the benchmarking program to note that other interns from other companies like Wesfarmers get some little compensation to their work. The approach my Woolworths on interns lack of payment did not please me (Ausker Rothman, 2015). This, therefore, makes me feel that in future when I become a manager, I would ensure that all people in attachment and internship programs are given some little compensation to motivate them while in the workplace. I am looking forward to getting a permanent full-time job after graduation so that I may grow professionally and form a solid foundation of personal life growth. Conclusion In conclusion, leadership and management theories play significant roles by helping managers to formulate change management policies that align with organizational goals. For change management to succeed, the managers must put into use the trait, situation, and contingency theories into practice. Management concepts and principles have helped companies succeed and remain competitive in the business environment. References Ausker, R., Rothman, T. (2015). Researching the Effectiveness of Skills Development Programmes: Methodological difficulties and recommendations. Bay, U., Macfarlane, S. (2011). Teaching critical reflection: a tool for transformative learning in social work?.Social Work Education,30(7), 745-758. Benn, S., Dunphy, D., Griffiths, A. (2014).Organizational change for corporate sustainability. Routledge. Clegg, S. R., Kornberger, M., Pitsis, T. (2015).Managing and organizations: An introduction to theory and practice. Sage. DuBrin, A. J. (2013).Fundamentals of organizational behavior: An applied perspective. Elsevier. Hayes, J. (2014).The theory and practice of change management. Palgrave Macmillan. Humayun, S. H. (2016). Merchandising operation of Woolworths Global Sourcing. Peterson, R. M., Dover, H. F. (2014). Building student networks with LinkedIn: The potential for connections, internships, and jobs.Marketing Education Review,24(1), 1 5-20. Wagner III, J. A., Hollenbeck, J. R. (2014).Organizational behavior: Securing competitive advantage. Routledge..

Technological Advancement

Question : Discuss about the Techological Advancement ? Answer : Introducation At the helm of the highest beneficiaries of technological advancement is the field of electronics. The latest models of electronic appliances are continually released in the market with the proceeding brands being better versions of their predecessor. Ranging from increasing the safety of the users from theft to making the user's life simpler, technological inventions in electronics have tremendously improved the life of man. Unfortunately, there have minimum considerations concerning human health as the inventions progress. Most of these inventions are coming out to be more hazardous and unsafe to the users comparatively to the preceding inventions. A lot of focus is given to increasing the processing power of the device while decreasing the sizes, thereby leaving a small surface area for heat transfer and dissipation. Poor dissipation and heat transfer from such devices may result in health complications and such conditions as cancer. Increased processing power results in a significant increase in the energy consumption of an electronic device. The amount of energy input in a device is equal to the energy output in a device assuming there are no energy interactions within the device. The available mechanisms to facilitate heat loss in electronic devices are not sufficiently usable for massive appliances and at the same time involving additional costs to improve their efficiency. For example, while using conduction and radiation as the cooling mechanism; the power device should be fitted with heat sinks which would conduct the heat to the outside. The rate of dissipation and transfer of heat has become a stumbling block in the performance of numerous electronic devices thereby evoking the need to find effective methods of cooling that would ensure the electronic component can adequately serve it purpose. Fears of side effects from heat dissipation should be curbed to achieve maximum usability. Following the aforementioned shortcomings of the available heat transfer mechanisms, 3D printing structures tend to be better alternatives. This new technology also commonly referred to as additive manufacturing comes with a package of that can solve the existing problem to a greater extent. Through such advantages as flexibility and ability to manufacture complicated devices at minimum cost, 3D printing ensures a boost in the efficiency of heat transfer and dissipation as well as maintaining a maximum capacity of usage of the device. Scope and Objective The scope of this study is to demonstrate an innovative and advanced approach to manufacturing highly complex components and filigree using laser beam melting. This article synthesizes the freedom of the laser beam melting technology in the manufacture of unique and complex components of structures. Also demonstrated is the ability of laser beam melting to allow speedy and tool-less production of superior components within the shortest time possible. At the end of the study, it will be analyzed and concluded that additive manufacture/ 3D printing provides structures and components which have superior characteristics in comparison with conventional manufacturing methods. The study gives an opportunity for the production and development of an individual heat transfer component that is to be used in an electrically driven race car. This development would ascertain the originality of the study thereby fulfilling the creativity requirements of the task. References Chen, P. (2008). Manufacturing of Porous Surfaces with Microscale Features for Advanced Heat Transfer. New York: ProQuest. Ohji, T. (2016). Advanced Processing and Manufacturing Technologies for Nanostructured and Multifunctional Materials II: Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Volume 36, Issue 6. Kansas: John Wiley Sons. Savalani, M. M. (2016). Handbook of Sustainability in Additive Manufacturing, Volume 2. Hong Kong: Springer. Schwalbe, M. (2016). Predictive Theoretical and Computational Approaches for Additive Manufacturing: Proceedings of a Workshop. London: National Academies Press.